NEW DELHI: A deeply entrenched preference for sons in rural India is placing a significant psychological burden on women and reinforcing gender discrimination within families, according to a new study by researchers at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign in the United States.
The study, published in the Journal of Development Economics, found that the birth of a firstborn son can substantially improve the mental well-being of mothers-in-law, while women who give birth to daughters can face growing psychological pressure as they approach the end of their childbearing years.
The findings offer a stark picture of how discriminatory social norms continue to shape women’s lives in parts of India, where sons are often regarded as carriers of the family lineage and a source of financial and social security for parents in old age.
Researchers said women face pressure not simply to have children, but specifically to produce a boy – a demand that can turn pregnancy and childbirth into a source of anxiety and distress.
“Mental health is shaped by individual characteristics, community characteristics and social norms,” said study co-author Catalina Herrera-Almanza, an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics at the University of Illinois.
She noted that sons are traditionally valued because they are expected to preserve the family name and provide support to parents in later life, leaving women under considerable pressure over the sex of their children.
Firstborn sons bring relief to mothers-in-law
The researchers surveyed married women of reproductive age and their mothers-in-law living in the same households in Jaunpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
They collected information on household conditions, demographics and socioeconomic circumstances, alongside mental-health indicators designed to identify risks of depression and anxiety.
The study found that mothers-in-law experienced the clearest improvement in psychological well-being when their daughters-in-law had a firstborn son. On average, their risk of depression or anxiety was 15 per cent lower when the first child was a boy.
Researchers said the improvement was comparable with effects associated with measures such as inheritance reforms and pension schemes that strengthen financial security among older women.
The findings highlight the extent to which the birth of a male child remains connected to perceptions of family security and status.
Women face growing pressure as they age
The researchers did not find an overall significant effect on the mental health of daughters-in-law. However, a closer examination by age revealed a more troubling pattern. The psychological burden associated with not having a son increased as women grew older.
According to Herrera-Almanza, a mother-in-law may experience relief from having a grandson regardless of her age, whereas a daughter-in-law can face increasing pressure as her reproductive years begin to run out.
This places women in a particularly vulnerable position, as their social standing and emotional well-being can become closely linked to whether they produce a male child.
Mother-in-law holds key household power
The study also sheds light on the unequal power structure inside many extended rural households. In the family arrangement examined by the researchers, women commonly move into their husband’s household after marriage, where the mother-in-law can exercise considerable influence over domestic decisions, including family planning.
Previous research by the same scholars identified mothers-in-law as important gatekeepers in decisions concerning contraception and fertility.
The latest findings suggest that son preference can therefore affect not only women’s mental health but also their reproductive autonomy.
Once a woman has a firstborn son, her mother-in-law is more likely to support the use of contraception and family planning, the researchers found.
The implication is that women who have not produced a son may remain under pressure to continue childbearing in the hope of having a boy.
Son preference also affects women’s economic opportunities
The consequences extend beyond reproductive decisions. Researchers found that improved mental well-being among mothers-in-law, particularly where the daughter-in-law was younger, was associated with greater support for childcare and women’s participation in paid work outside the home.
This suggests that gender discrimination can have a wider economic impact by restricting women’s ability to enter or remain in the workforce.
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When mothers-in-law become more supportive, younger women may receive greater assistance with childcare, allowing them to seek employment and improve their economic opportunities.
A wider pattern of gender inequality
The researchers said the problem is not confined to one household or one community. Son preference is deeply embedded in social expectations across parts of South and Southeast Asia and in some African societies. Such norms can be difficult to dismantle because they are reinforced across generations.
The study consequently exposes a broader contradiction in India’s social structure: women can be expected to shoulder responsibility for childbirth while having limited influence over the social and family pressures surrounding reproduction.
The researchers said changing such attitudes requires interventions that challenge misconceptions and engage influential family members, particularly mothers-in-law.
India already has community-level initiatives aimed at encouraging discussions between women and their mothers-in-law about family planning.
The researchers are now working on an intervention designed to address son preference and improve women’s well-being by changing household dynamics.
The study, titled Son Preference, Intergenerational Household Dynamics, and Women’s Mental Health in India, was authored by S. Anukriti, Catalina Herrera-Almanza, Shahadat Hossain and Mahesh Karra.
